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Unpredictability. Nonlinearity and sensitive dependence on initial conditions are some of the characteristics a dynamical system must have to present a chaotic response. Therefore, the study of nonlinear dynamics of SMA systems is crucial if SMAs are to be used successfully in PVID systems. This paper investigates the nonlinear and chaotic dynamics of a SMA PVID device through experimental tests and numerical simulations. At first, the SMA device was subjected to a series of continuous accelerations in the form of frequency sine sweeps and sinusoidal single frequency excitations, at different levels of acceleration amplitude. Afterwards, the dynamic analysis of a one-degree of freedom 1-DOF ; SMA oscillator was conducted. The SMA oscillator was numerically tested for the same dynamic loading paths as the SMA device. A time dependent model was used to simulate the constitutive behavior of SMA elements. The SMA PVID device was composed of a mass connected to a frame by two pre-strained pseudoelastic SMA wires of equal length. Each SMA wire was preload with sufficient preload to ensure they remain in tension throughout the test. A series of continuous accelerations functions in the form of frequency sine sweeps and single frequency sinusoidal functions excited the device through its base. Sine sweep tests had the purpose of determining the resonance frequency range and evaluate the system's transmissibility response, while the single frequency excitation investigated the type of motion the system was undergoing for certain values of frequencies. Several vibration tests were conducted with different levels of acceleration amplitude for frequencies close to the resonance frequency, where chaotic responses were most likely to appear. Furthermore, the temperature of the SMA wires was measured during all vibrations tests. It was observed that higher amplitude of the acceleration input produced larger temperature variations of the SMA wires, due to the stress-induced phase transformation the wires underwent. Besides experimental vibration tests, numerical simulations were conducted to corroborate the experimental results. The SMA PVID device was modeled as a 1-DOF SMA oscillator. The oscillator had the same configuration of the device, a mass balance by two pre-strained pseudoelastic SMA wire. The behavior of the SMA elements was modeled by a time dependent constitutive model. Transmissibility curves were used as tools to analyze the system's dynamics during sine sweep tests, while Phase space plots, Bifurcation diagrams, and Lyapunov exponents evaluated the dynamics of the SMA device under single frequency tests. These exponents evaluate the sensitive dependence of the system on initial conditions and have been used as the most useful dynamical diagnostic tool for chaotic system analysis. The time dependent constitutive model was based on the model proposed by Boyd and Lagoudas and captures the behavior of SMAs in dynamical situations. Although Boyd and Lagoudas model was able to predict the main characteristics of SMAs behavior, it was modified to consider some other necessary features. At first, the second order polynomial hardening function was substituted by a general power law hardening function. This change smoothed the transitions between the elastic and phase transformation regimes, eliminating the presence of kinks in the SMA stress vs. strain response. Secondly, the fully coupled energy balanced heat equation was introduced into the constitutive formulation. The thermomechanical coupling existent on SMAs can induce time dependent behavior, due to latent heat production during phase transformation. This apparent rate dependency is not constitutive rate dependency, but it is caused by the heat transfer time dependency. Therefore, the inclusion of the heat equation eliminates the previous assumption of rate-independency discussed in previous works, leading to a time dependent formulation. Previous works by Machado and Lagoudas implemented the heat equation, but only for the case of heat convection. This work, however, considered other forms of heat transfer, such as conduction, and radiation. Another key aspect to consider in the modeling of dynamical response of SMA is the minor hysteresis loops, caused by partial or incomplete phase transformations. For dynamical situations, the reversal of loading may initiate reverse phase transformation under non-isothermal conditions, which alters the amount of energy dissipated per cycle. Therefore, the constitutive model presented in this work was also modified to describe minor hysteresis loops in non-isothermal conditions. In summary, this work investigates the nonlinear dynamics and chaos of TEL: + 1 360 676 spie spie.
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Acknowledgements Of the many pages that comprise a PhD thesis, my impression is that most people only read the List of Publications and the Acknowledgements. In this regard, I have taken my time to carefully reflect over the individuals who influenced me and my research during the nine years since I started this project. I first met my adviser Professor Rolf Lewensohn over lunch at the former SSI conference room. At this meeting we discussed challenges facing the treatment of lung cancer. It was apparent to me then, as it is today, that Rolf is a visionary with a sincere goal to contribute to the improvement of treatment for patients with malignant disease. Rolf is an administrative magician. He has provided the conditions necessary for free and open discussion in our research group and the opportunity to pursue our own avenues of interest. My other adviser Professor Hans Ehrsson helped me to understand the complex world of platinum chemistry. Even though he didn't entrust me with the door code to the hospital pharmacy, I truly enjoyed dropping by and discussing platinum chemistry with him. I have often felt that the world would be a far nicer place to live in if there were more people like Hans Ehrsson. I would like to thank Professor Ulrik Ringborg for accepting my somewhat unusual working schedule that made it possible for me do laboratory research while keeping active as a clinical oncologist. Anders Nilsson is responsible for introducing DNA-PK to our research group Should we kill him for this? ; . There are few people that I know in academics that have as broad a background as Anders. He became a mentor and more importantly a cherished friend. I grateful to him for stimulating conversation concerning everything under the sun and for many moments of laughter and fun. What I remember most from my first day at the old SSI lab is meeting two laboratory assistants who radiated energy and warmth. They made me feel welcome from the start. My sincere thanks to Lillemor Laurn and Marianne Landegren by the way, I only tasted DMSO once ; . I truly grateful to my co-author Ingrid Wallin. Still not entrusting me with the hospital pharmacy door code, I was always welcome to visit, analyze and discuss our data. Ingrid has created an air of efficiency and professionalism in the lab and at the same time it feels warm, friendly and humble thank-you. Kristina Viktorsson was instrumental in helping me put the finishing touches on this thesis. She joined our research group a couple of years ago bringing new energy and enthusiasm. Kristina introduced me to the fascinating world of MAP kinases. She has.
Meleady R, McMaster D, Verhoef P, Witteman J, Rubba P, Bellet H, Wautrecht JC, de Valk HW, Sales LA, Parrot-Rouland FM, Tan KS, Higgins I, Garcon D, Andria G. Plasma homocysteine as a risk factor for vascular disease: the European Concerted Action Project. JAMA. 1997; 277: 17751781. Kasiske BL, Guijarro C, Massy ZA, Wiederkehr MR, Ma JZ. Cardiovascular disease after renal transplantation. J Soc Nephrol. 1996; 7: 158 Bostom AG, Gohh RY, Tsai MY, Hopkins-Garcia BJ, Nadeau MR, Bianchi LA, Jacques PF, Rosenberg IH, Selhub J. Excess prevalence of fasting and postmethionine-loading hyperhomocysteinemia in stable renal transplant recipients. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1997; 17: 1894 Wilcken DE, Gupta VJ, Betts AK. Homocysteine in the plasma of renal transplant recipients: effects of cofactors for methionine metabolism. Clin Sci. 1981; 61: 743749. Arnadottir M, Hultberg B. Treatment with high-dose folic acid effectively lowers plasma homocysteine concentration in cyclosporine-treated renal transplant recipients. Transplantation. 1997; 64: 1087. Bostom AG, Gohh RY, Beaulieu AJ, Nadeau MR, Hume AL, Jacques PF, Selhub J, Rosenberg IH. Treatment of hyperhomocysteinemia in renal transplant recipients: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. 1997; 127: 1089 Homocysteine Lowering Trialists Collaboration. Lowering blood homocysteine with folic acid based supplements: meta-analysis of randomized trials. BMJ. 1998; 316: 894 Brouwer IA, van Dusseldorp M, Thomas CMG, Duran M, Hautvast JGAJ, Eskes TKAB, Steegers-Theunissen RPM. Low-dose folic acid supplementation decreases plasma homocysteine concentrations: a randomized trial. J Clin Nutr. 1999; 69: 99 Bostom AG, Shemin D, Lapane KL, Hume AL, Yoburn D, Nadeau MR, Bendich A, Selhub J, Rosenberg IH. High dose-B-vitamin treatment of hyperhomocysteinemia in dialysis patients. Kidney Int. 1996; 49: 147152. van Guldener C, Janssen MJ, Lambert J, ter Wee PM, Jakobs C, Donker AJ, Stehouwer CD. No change in impaired endothelial function after long-term folic acid therapy of hyperhomocysteinaemia in hemodialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 1998; 13: 106 Levey AS, Beto JA, Coronado BE, Eknoyan G, Foley RN, Kasiske BL, Klag MJ, Mailloux LU, Manske CL, Meyer KB, Parfrey PS, Pfeffer MA, Wenger NK, Wilson PW, Wright JT. Controlling the epidemic of cardiovascular disease in chronic renal disease: What do we know? What do we need to learn? Where do we go from here? J Kidney Dis. 1998; 32: 853905. Naurath HJ, Joosten E, Riezler R, Stabler SP, Allen RH, Lindenbaum J. Effects of vitamin B12, folate, and vitamin B6 supplements in elderly people with normal serum vitamin concentrations. Lancet. 1995; 346: 85 Smulders YM, de Man AME, Stehouwer CDA, Slaats EH. Trimethoprim and fasting plasma homocysteine. Lancet. 1998; 352: 18271828. Araki A, Sako Y. Determination of free and total homocysteine in human plasma by high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. J Chromatogr. 1987; 422: 4352. Horne DW, Patterson D. Lactobacillus casei assay of folic acid derivatives in 96-well microtiter plates. Clin Chem. 1988; 34: 23572359. Shin-Buering Y, Rasshofer R, Endres WA. A new enzymatic method for pyridoxal 5 -phosphate determination. J Inherit Metab Dis. 1981; 4: 123124. Folic acid content of some grain foods is mandated by FDA. The Wall Street Journal. Monday, January 5, 1998. Food standards: amendment of standards of identity for enriched grain products to require addition of folic acid. Federal Register. March 5, 1996: 61; Jacques PF, Selhub J, Bostom AG, Wilson PWF, Rosenberg IH. Impact of folic acid fortification on plasma folate and total homocysteine concentrations. N Engl J Med. 1999; 340: 1449 Bostom AG, Gohh RY, Liaugaudas G, Beaulieu AJ, Han H, Jacques PF, Dworkin L, Rosenberg IH, Selhub J. Prevalence of mild fasting hyperhomocysteinemia in renal transplant versus coronary artery disease patients after fortification of cereal grain flour with folic acid. Atherosclerosis. 1999; 145: 221224. Bostom AG, Culleton B. Hyperhomocysteinemia in chronic renal disease: disease of the month review. J Soc Nephrol. 1999; 10: 891900.
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HIV-infected children were enrolled at clinical sites funded by the National Institutes of Health to participate in clinical trials and other studies related to HIV infection among infants, children, and adolescents. The institutional review board at each participating site approved the protocol. Appropriate informed consent and assent, if appropriate ; was obtained for each patient before enrollment, and clinical research was conducted in accordance with guidelines for human experimentation, as specified by the US Department of Health and Human Services and by the participating institutions. Eligibility criteria for enrollment were age between 2 and 21 years; HIV infection; receiving stable unchanged ; antiretroviral therapy, although not necessarily HAART, for 4 months before study entry; and receipt of PCP prophylaxis for a minimum of 6 months, without discontinuation of PCP prophylaxis for 3 months before study entry. In addition, at study entry, children 2 to 6 years of age were required to have a CD4 cell percentage of 25%, and children 6 years of age were required to have a CD4 cell percentage of 20%. Children were not enrolled if they had experienced an episode of proven or presumed PCP in the prior 3 months or had an active infection requiring ongoing antimicrobial therapy, were receiving intravenously administered immunoglobulin, or had a history of malignancy. Prohibited medications at study entry and study follow-up times included intravenously administered immunoglobulin for 1 therapeutic intervention, PCP treatment such as trimethoprim sulfamethoxazole, atovaquone azithromycin, dapsone, or pentamidine ; for 28 days, or any systemic antifungal prophylaxis for 28 days. Patients who received any of the disallowed medications after enrollment were removed from the study. The protocol required reporting within 72 hours to the protocol team if the patient received any prohibited medication or if the patient discontinued antiretroviral therapy. All children discontinued PCP prophylaxis at study entry. The occurrence of SBIs and of PCP was to be reported to the protocol and trimipramine.
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Increasing pneumococcal resistance to antimicrobials continues to present therapeutic problems for physicians needing reliable agents for empiric treatment. New antibiotics offer additional therapeutic options if susceptibility can be demonstrated. 334 isolates of S. pneumoniae selected for non-susceptibility to penicillin MIC 0.125 g ml ; from the middle ear 326 ; or mastoid 8 ; of children enrolled in a multicenter pneumococcal disease study from 1994 through 2000 were tested by micro-broth dilution for susceptibility to 9 antibiotics. Using NCCLS breakpoints resistance was: amoxicillin 1%, azithromycin 72%, cefprozil 71%, ceftriaxone 11%, erythromycin 70%, levofloxacin 0% and trimethoprim sulfamethoxazole 93%. Resistance of penicillin non-susceptible isolates to erythromycin by year of isolation was: 43%, 66%, 73%, chi square for trend 19.17, p 0.00001 ; . Based on erythromycin Eryth ; susceptibility 28% susceptible, 2% intermediate and 70% resistant ; , the susceptibility of the azolides ketolides tested were and trizivir.
Panied by lower counts with the filter paper test. Fourteen of these were clearly missed by the new method counts were 103 or less ; . Examination of the identity of the organisms missed revealed most of them to be yeasts whose growth is not supported by the filter paper media, or small colonies of slowly growing streptococci. Enteric bacteria commonly encountered in urinary infection were rarely missed. Field studies were also conducted comparing the filter paper with the dip-slide method. Data on the relative ability of the two methods to detect gram-negative bacteria are given in Table 4. The methods correlated well with a relative sensitivity of 83.3 and specificity of 99.6% for the filter paper method. Effect of antibacterial agents on filter paper culture-tetrazolium test. An overnight culture of a strain of Escherichia coli susceptible to a wide variety of antibiotics was diluted to a concentration of 10' colonies per ml and incubated with antibiotics at a final concentration of 50 , g Trypticase soy broth. Samples were removed immediately and at intervals up to 24 and cultured by the filter paper and pour plate methods Fig. 3 ; . Major differences were observed between the two culture methods. All of the drugs except sulfamethoxazole SMZ ; and trimethoprim TMP ; were found to completely block growth of bacteria in the filter paper culture. Pour plate culture, however, revealed the expected gradual reduction in bacterial counts with time for most drugs and a bacteriostatic effect in these media with SMZ and TMP. This effect is believed to be due to retention of antibiotics in the filter paper as opposed to dilution to subinhibitory levels in the pour plates. The notion is supported by the observa.
In the work of Smith. Most nevertheless opted for protectionism as against the liberal free trade, and were primarily worried by the class hostility they felt had been encouraged by Ricardo. Instead of adding to the literature on protectionist and historical economists, however, Part III concentrates on those elaborating the centreperiphery relation, preferably those on the periphery, where sensitivity to disadvantages were greater. We study the centre periphery relation as seen by certain transatlantic writers: Fitzhugh in the American South Chapter 8 ; , Innis in the Canadian North, Prebisch in Argentina along with the terms of trade debate, the Caribbean emigrant to Britain, Lewis, and finally the Vilnian immigrant to America, Baran, along with some Indian predecessors and the dependency tradition largely inspired by him. The geographical divergence is indicated, but also the ideological one, starting with a protofascist propagandist of southern slavery, Fitzhugh, inspired by Ricardian socialists to formulate a theory of non-equivalent exchange Chapter 8 ; . Both the problems pertaining to the `cyclonic' interactions of the centre-periphery relation and those relating to nationalism reappeared in the work of the Canadian liberal and Veblenesque economic historian Innis Chapter 9 ; . He known primarily in the former category for his so called `staple-thesis' explanation of Canadian history, which has been revived in the context of ecological unequal exchange. I suggest that he may have as much to offer in the second office, if it is accepted that such horizontal social conflict is what unequal exchange theory is ultimately about. The Canadian example serves to illustrate part of the argument also in Chapter 10 on Prebisch and the debate on the terms of trade, where it is pointed out that the Argentinean export economy showed many similarities with the British Dominions, and certainly could not be said to have underdeveloped because of its raw materials exports. Discussed is also in what sense, if any, Prebisch can be said to have originated rather than helped inspire the debate on unequal exchange, and how the debate on the Prebisch-Singer theorem soon showed that the question of raw materials vs. manufactures was another from that of development vs. underdevelopment, whether with respect to general economic development or to the trend of the terms of trade. In Chapter 11, we then turn to the West-Indian immigrant to Manchester, Lewis who built primarily on the classical paradigm, pointing out the cold-war context of his effort to understand the British industrial revolution. His model, which focused on the unequal wage-levels due to productivity differences, and their non-equalisation through political restrictions on migration, significantly contributed to the interpretation of the falling terms of trade, and has in itself been seen as a theory of unequal exchange. It furthermore stimulated Emmanuel, with whose theory it has important connections in reversing the order of causality now letting the `factoral' terms of trade determine the `commodity' terms, rather than the other way around. Finally, Chapter 12 ; we turn to the early `dependency' tradition, or rather some of its exponents active in the United States, primarily Baran and the dependency traditions, which generally have not contributed theories of unequal exchange in any strict sense. Initially, excepting Wallerstein, they have appeared rather as critics while perhaps in a brothers' broil. Along with both being Marxist, the association seems mostly to be based on the shared centreperiphery perspective, although historically Baran can be considered a stimulant to many, including Emmanuel. The former mercantilist, classical, Marxist, and centreperiphery traditions are all present, in one way or another, in the work of Emmanuel, the principal subject of Part IV along with some of the debate around him. Emmanuel functions as unifier for the present thesis, but has also functioned as the historical catalyst for the idea of unequal exchange, at least potentially reviving it to the normal science paradigm. This is the theoretical centre of the book, concentrating on Emmanuel, starting with his possible background Greece and the Congo Chapter 13 ; . Chapter 14 looks into the French Marxism to which he had to relate, and Chapter 15 his theory's reversal of neoclassical trade theoretical assumptions as well as some and troleandomycin.
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1 Presented in part at Experimental Biology 04, April 2004, Washington, DC [Tanghe, K. A. & Schalinske, K. L. 2004 ; Hyperthyroidism attenuates retinoic acid-mediated alterations of methyl group metabolism, whereas retinoic acid treatment prevents triiodothyronine-induced hyperhomocysteinemia in rats. FASEB J. 18: A174 abs. ; ]. 2 Supported in part by the Iowa Agriculture and Home Economics Experiment Station; the Iowa State University Office of Biotechnology; the United States Department of Agriculture NRI 0135200-09854 K.L.S. the American Institute for Cancer Research 00B078REV K.L.S. the Cancer Research and Prevention Foundation K.L.S. and the National Institutes of Health DK52501 T.A.G. ; . 3 To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: kschalin iastate . 4 Abbreviations used: BHMT, betaine-homocysteine S-methyltransferase; BSA, bovine serum albumin; CBS, cystathionine -synthase; DEX, dexamethasone; GNMT, glycine N-methyltransferase; MS, methionine synthase, MTHFR, 5, 10-methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase; 5-methyl-THF, 5-methyltetrahydrofolate; PMSF, phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride; PTU, propylthiouracil; RA, all-transretinoic acid; SAH, S-adenosylhomocysteine; SAM, S-adenosylmethionine; T3, triiodothyronine; T4, thyroxine; TTBS, Tween Tris-buffered saline and tums.
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